Before delving into the intricacies of politics in China, it is imperative for us to address a primary question: Why should we learn about the political structure of China?
Understanding China’s unique political system is crucial for comprehending its domestic and international behaviour. As China continues to play an increasingly important role on the global stage, its political structure will likely face further challenges and adaptations in the future. By understanding these elements, we can better comprehend the complex dynamics of modern China and its role on the world stage.
In order to give readers a better understanding of the political structure of China, this article begins with a brief overview of how China became a Communist state. It then delves into the details of administrative bodies, explaining how the Communist Party controls each organ of the state.
Establishing a Communist China
The roots of Chinese Communism can be traced back to the early 20th century, a period of significant social and political upheaval in China. The collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 ended over two millennia of imperial rule, but the subsequent Republic of China struggled to establish stability and modernise the nation. Several key factors contributed to the rise of Communism in China: intellectual ferment sparked by the May Fourth Movement of 1919, the influence of the Soviet Union and its successful 1917 revolution, failures of the Nationalist Kuomintang government, the Japanese invasion and subsequent Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), and finally, the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949) which ended in Communist victory.
The Communist Party of China (CPC), founded in 1921, played a crucial role in this historical process. Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the party adapted Marxist-Leninist ideology to Chinese conditions, emphasising the revolutionary potential of the peasantry rather than the urban proletariat. The Communist victory in 1949 initiated a period of radical social and economic transformation, including land reform, collectivisation, and the Great Leap Forward. The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) further reshaped Chinese society and caused significant social and economic disruption.
Political Structure in China
The establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949 marked a pivotal moment in world history, transforming China into a Communist state and reshaping global geopolitics. Since the reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, China has undergone significant economic liberalisation while maintaining its one-party political system. The PRC’s current political structure can be described as a socialist state under the leadership of the CPC, with several key features. The CPC holds a monopoly on political power with several branches of government. The CPC presents itself as “coordinating the work of all sides”. The primary organs of the Chinese Government are as follows.
- China’s unicameral legislature, the National People’s Congress;
- An Executive body, the State Council;
- An adjudicatory body, the Supreme People’s Court which is aided by a prosecutorial body, the Supreme People’s Procuratorate;
- and what China calls a “political consultation” body, the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).
1. The National People’s Congress (NPC):
This is the highest organ of state power and the national legislature of China. It consists of approximately 3,000 delegates elected indirectly to serve five-year terms. The Readers should not get confused with the other NPC – National Party Congress, which is convened every five years. (Refer to Chart Above) The NPC – National People’s Congress is China’s legislature. The NPC can amend the Constitution, enact laws, ratify treaties, and appoint key government officials. It typically meets for about two weeks each year. The National People’s Congress (NPC) members are selected through a multi-tiered, indirect election process.
Do Elections happen in China?
Elections for township and county-level people’s congresses are direct, whereas at the Provincial and National level, people’s Congress are Indirect. These bodies are part of the broader structure of the National People’s Congress, which is China’s highest legislative body. However, candidates are often pre-screened and approved by higher authorities, and the elections are tightly controlled.
Elections at Village and Township Levels:
- Direct Elections: Deputies to the People’s Congresses at the village and township levels are elected directly by the eligible voters within their jurisdictions. These are the most grassroots-level elections and involve a more direct form of voting by the people.
· County and District Levels:
- Direct Elections: Deputies to the People’s Congresses at the county and district levels are also elected directly by voters, but the candidates are often vetted or nominated by higher authorities or the local party committees. Thisis a step up from the village and township level.
While both levels involve direct voting, the scope, control, and oversight of the elections can vary. Village elections are generally more grassroots and can sometimes see more participation from independent candidates. In contrast, elections at the county and district levels are more controlled and have stricter oversight regarding candidate selection and the electoral process.
Elections at Provincial and Municipal Levels:
- Indirect Elections: Deputies to the People’s Congresses at the provincial and municipal levels are elected by the People’s Congress deputies of the immediately lower level. For example, deputies to a provincial People’s Congress are elected by the deputies of the municipal People’s Congresses within that province.
Election for National People’s Congress (NPC):
The members of China’s National People’s Congress (NPC) are selected through an indirect process. Here’s how it works,
Indirect Elections: Deputies to the NPC, which is the highest legislative body in China (approximately 3,000 delegates), are elected by the deputies of the provincial People’s Congresses (32 provincial-level congresses), including deputies from autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government, and special administrative regions (like Hong Kong and Macau). The NPC also includes deputies from the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), who are elected by the PLA’s representative assemblies.
2. The State Council
The State Council, also known as the Central People’s Government, is China’s highest executive body. Serving as the executive branch (Cabinet) of the government, the State Council is led by the Premier and includes various ministries and commissions. It is responsible for implementing laws, managing the economy, and overseeing the day-to-day administration of the country.
The State Council consists of about 35 members, including the Premier, Vice Premiers, State Councilors, and heads of ministries and commissions. The selection process for these positions is closely tied to China’s political structure and the influence of the Communist Party of China (CPC). The Premier is nominated by the President and approved by the National People’s Congress (NPC), while other members are nominated by the Premier and approved by the NPC or its Standing Committee. However, all selections are heavily influenced by the CPC. Most State Council members are senior party officials with extensive government experience. This process reflects the intertwining of party and state in China’s political system, with the CPC maintaining ultimate control over appointments.
3. The Presidency
The President of China, also the General Secretary of the CPC, is the head of state. Prior to 2018, Article 79 of the state constitution stated that PRC presidents and vice presidents “shall serve no more than two consecutive terms.” In 2018, however, the Party directed the NPC to amend the constitution to remove those words, opening the way for Xi Jinping to seek a third term as state president starting in March 2023. The readers should understand that there is no term limit for Part General Secretary, Since Xi Jinping holds both these posts concurrently, the above arrangement was made. Though the Presidency was previously a largely ceremonial post, the role now carries significant political weight due to its concurrency with party leadership.
4. The Supreme People’s Court:
As the highest judicial organ, it supervises the administration of justice by local people’s courts and special people’s courts. The court is headed by a President and several Vice Presidents, with a total of about 340 judges. The Supreme People’s Procuratorate is the highest agency for legal supervision and prosecution. It oversees local procuratorates and has about 200 prosecutors.
How CPC wields its Power
Politburo Standing Committee – Apex of Political Power
The Communist Party of China, while not formally a branch of government, exerts control over all these institutions. The party’s top leadership, particularly the Politburo Standing Committee (currently consisting of seven members), holds the ultimate decision-making power in the country. Currently, it has seven members, and it is led by the CPC General Secretary, who is also China’s President.
The PSC’s influence extends across all aspects of party and state affairs. Members are selected through an opaque process and operate in a hierarchical structure. They collectively set the direction for China’s domestic and foreign policies, though the General Secretary holds considerable sway. The PSC meets weekly to oversee governance areas and play a vital role in crisis management. Under Xi Jinping’s leadership since 2012, there has been a notable centralisation of power within the PSC. While essential for understanding China’s policy-making, much about the PSC’s inner workings remains speculative due to the secretive nature of Chinese elite politics.
Second Highest Decision-Making Body
The CPC Political Bureau (Politburo) is China’s second-highest decision-making body, consisting of 25 members, including seven from the Politburo Standing Committee (PBSC) and 18 regular members. Six of seven Party Secretariat members are from the Politburo. Some members made unprecedented leaps in rank, skipping typical promotion steps. Based on age norms, nine members born after 1954 could be eligible for reappointment or promotion in 2022. The Politburo meets monthly, often holding group study sessions on topics like rural policy and artificial intelligence. This body represents a diverse mix of party leaders, showcasing the complex dynamics of China’s top political echelon, including representation from various sectors, unique promotion patterns, and a blend of established and rising political figures.
The Central Military Commission (CMC):
This body commands the armed forces and typically consists of about seven members, including its chairman (usually the CPC General Secretary), vice-chairmen, and members representing various military branches.
The CMC exercises unified command over China’s military forces, including the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), the People’s Armed Police Force (PAP), and the militia. The PLA, with about two million active personnel, is primarily loyal to the Party, not the nation.
The CMC operates under a “chairman responsibility system” with Xi Jinping in sole charge. Other members are military officers, including two vice chairmen who are also Politburo members. The commission includes chiefs of keydepartments like the Joint Staff and Political Work departments.
The CMC’s structure reflects the Party’s control over the military, with Party committees and political commissars embedded throughout. Anti-corruption efforts have been a focus, with several high-ranking officers investigated in recent years.
Are there any parties other than the CPC?
The principle of democratic centralism, derived from Leninist theory, emphasises collective decision-making followed by unified implementation of policies. The CPC maintains control over various social groups through mass organisations. The Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) provides a forum for limited political participation by non-CPC members and organisations.
There are eight political parties other than the CPC, all dating from before the CPC came to power. The CPC requires them all to accept its leadership. The CPC also restricts their recruitment. The largest of the minor parties is the China Democratic League.
Like the NPC, the National Committee of the CPPCC, with almost 3,000 members, meets in entire session once a year in early March. The PRC government and media refer to the nearly simultaneous NPC and CPPCC meetings as “the two sessions.” China’s state media give the meetings lavish coverage, often showcasing CPPCC members’ policy proposals and statements. The CPC is not, however, obliged to act upon those suggestions. The PRC government refers to CPPCC members as “political advisors.” The CPPCC is neither a body of state power nor a policy-making organ but a platform for “various political parties, people’s organizations, and people of all ethnic groups and from all sectors of society” to participate in State Affairs.
CHALLENGES
The establishment of Communist rule in China was the result of complex historical factors, including social upheaval, foreign invasion, and civil war. The current political structure of the PRC, while rooted in Marxist-Leninist principles, has evolved significantly since 1949. It combines traditional Leninist party-state organisation elements with innovative adaptations to contemporary challenges.
Despite its apparent stability, China’s political system faces several challenges. These include balancing economic liberalisation with political control, combating corruption, addressing social inequality and environmental degradation, dealing with demographic challenges, and responding to international pressure. In response to these challenges, the CPC has demonstrated adaptability, incorporating new concepts such as “socialism with Chinese characteristics” and the “Chinese Dream” into its ideology. The party has also emphasised technological innovation, including the development of a “social credit” system and digital governance tools.
